Questioning Students for Academic Purposes

Recently, there seems to be a lot of talk about questioning students and the role it plays in quality instruction. Questioning techniques, such as calling on students randomly, are being hailed as excellent ways to improve student achievement. As a science teacher, I think the variety and complexity of questions that I ask in my classroom ultimately determine how well my students understand the curriculum. As in all aspects of instruction, questioning plays an important role in guiding student thinking and making them accountable for the curriculum. As researchers sing the praises of randomly asking questions, and the impact it has on student achievement, I would like to discuss some other methods of questioning teachers might explore in the classroom.

If we look beyond the foundational reasons we ask questions described above, we see a new purpose or role for questioning in classroom instruction. Group work and the push for students to learn how to collaborate and work together may require new ways of questioning students. The demand for more critical thinking by students also requires that we expand the kinds of questions we ask and the amount of time we afford students to think about the answers. Perhaps the best way to explore the role of questioning is to look at why we question students in the first place. Often teachers ask questions as part of their instruction without really asking themselves a simple question: What is the purpose of asking this question? By exploring the purpose of questioning we might gain some insight into the important role of questioning in student learning

. When we look at academic questioning, we can broadly put all questions into three groups based on the purpose and complexity.

Accountability and Diagnostic Questions - Who Did the Homework?

When you ask teachers why they question students most of the time you will get a fairly simple answer: Questioning and the subsequent answers provides the teacher with feedback on how well the class is getting the lesson. If the teacher asks individuals the questions, it also creates accountability and provides some measure of how well the student understands the content of a lesson. This type of question is recognized as a crucial component of effective instruction. The seminal research on interactive direct instruction clearly indicates the importance of questioning during instruction and its impact on student achievement. When a teacher asks questions during instruction they gain valuable information about how well the students are understanding the content which in turn can be used to adjust the pace and complexity of the content delivery.

We can broadly categorize these questions as accountability and diagnostic. They provide the teacher with feedback as well as engage the class. Asking students randomly is by far the preferred method of questioning for two important reasons. First, all students must listen and follow along with the teacher so they are trying to answer all the questions. Second, the teacher gets a random cross section of the class, giving her an indication of the range of understanding among the students. These types of questions are often very content specific and knowledge level types of questions. They have convergent specific answers and require less wait time than other types of questions. Questioning for the purpose of accountability and feedback is a crucial aspect of quality instruction and assessment. And when people talk about questioning in the classroom this is by far the most common reason most teachers ask questions. If we look at other purposes for asking questions, the complexity and method of questioning will change to suit the particular purpose.

Reflective Questions – Describe the steps you followed to do the homework?

Asking questions to promote student reflection is a key aspect of developing metacognitive skills in students. These kinds of questions are a crucial aspect of formative assessment and help students learn to monitor their own learning. Reflective questions require more wait time so students can look at the information they have to generate answers. These types of questions can be answered by all students in the class and often involve collaborating with other students. Research has demonstrated the value of reflection in memory and learning. Teaching students to reflect and to refine the information they learn is a huge step in developing what might be referred to as ownership of learning. When we look at the purposes for asking reflective questions it is clear that these types of questions play a crucial role in learning.

Formative assessment has been recognized as a key factor in effective classroom instruction. The work of Popham and others has clearly shown the importance of formative assessment in learning. Questioning, imbedded in quality curriculum delivery, is crucial to understanding. Students must be challenged to think about what they are learning and share their comprehension and ideas with others. Reflective questions help students see holes they have in their learning, as well helping them see the level of understanding in the class as a whole. For example, I could be having students draw a pot of boiling water to illustrate fundamental concepts in thermal energy transfer. I ask students to compare their drawing with a group of four. Each person checks their drawing to see if it is as complete and neat as all the others in the group. These kinds of questions allow students to reflect and refine their understanding. They also learn to be more honest about their personal abilities and needs. Formative assessment questions ultimately develop metacognitive skills and ultimately teach the students how to regulate their own learning.

Reflective questions can also be used to help students think about their thinking. We can ask questions like: Why did you select those materials for your solar oven? How did you decide what to do first when you started construction? These kinds of questions help students think about problem solving and the processes they use to make decisions. Affording time for students to reflect teaches them the value of processing information and thinking about options and choices. Research has demonstrated the value of having students explain the steps they follow to answer a question or problem. Articulation questions require much more wait time than questions that demand a simple answer. These questions also provide valuable information about thinking and creativity.

Higher–level Thinking Questions – Does homework really support student learning?

Schools across the country have adopted rigorous new standards that demand students demonstrate critical thinking skills and problem solving abilities. This kind of thinking creates a new purpose for questioning students. Questions that demand prior knowledge and analysis of information are fundamentally different than short answer accountably questions. When students are challenged to think it requires more wait time. Since these questions often require creativity and background knowledge, it is helpful to have students in groups so they can collaborate and share information. In science, I spend time teaching students the kinds of questions we ask and the different ways to structure the answers. A short list of higher-level thinking questions we use in teaching include: Application of knowledge, Compare and contrast, Thinking questions, ​​Ordering evidence, Inferring from an argument, Data, ​​​Predicting, ​Cause and ​​effect, and Generating models.

When students are challenged with these kinds of questions it helps to put students in small groups. The background knowledge and skills needed to answer these kinds of questions requires more than one person. Additionally, there is courage in numbers. Many students do not have the academic efficacy to take on complex questions themselves, yet when grouped with other students they will try more difficult tasks. There are so many benefits to having students work collaboratively to generate answers, perhaps the most important is listening and learning to use information from other people.

Aside from the academic reasons for questioning students, there are a variety of other skills that students develop when they work together. By organizing the classroom into small groups, teachers can help students think together and share information. Important skills such as collaboration, communication, and critical thinking can all be developed by having students work together to answer questions. In science we play a question game called “Geek Pictionary”. Students work in pairs with white boards. I pose a question and they must draw the answer on the white board. When they are done the groups grade each others’ drawings and provide feedback. This interaction promotes collaboration as students share ideas and ways to communicate information. When we ask students to work in groups they develop a variety of social skills as well as learning content and thinking strategies from each other.

The role of questioning in education appears to be evolving with the demands of new standards and higher academic expectations. 20 years ago we were satisfied to have students recite lower-level facts to us as evidence of learning. Today, the kinds of questions students are challenged to answer requires more thinking and processing. The wait time and method of asking questions needs to reflect the complexity of these kinds of questions and answers. The important role questioning plays in teaching and learning is even more important in the complex world of today’s classrooms.

It is important to note that I have only discussed questions related to academic growth and content knowledge acquisition. Teachers ask questions for a variety of social and personal reasons that have more to do with building a positive classroom climate than teaching curriculum. Do not think that these questions are any less important in creating an environment where learning.

Football and teaching??

So I am just thinking, John says that some of his 8th grade science students this fall seem to have lower than usual basic math skills. And I have been talking with a middle school in Loveland that is concerned because their scores on the Tera Nova show that their 8th grade math students are weak in their basic math computation skills, fraction computation, and decimal computation. Yet, John wants to move students with their science concepts and the Loveland math teacher knows it is important to involve students in critical thinking, application, and analysis.

I am wondering if we can liken this scenario to a high school football coach with a new group of players. Surely, from year to year the quality of the football skills that the team has vary. And yet the coach needs to put on their best results-driven showing each Friday night. The coaching staff needs to balance time spent on skill drills with time sent on game planning, plays, and strategy. John knows that it is important to maintain a sense of momentum with his science students in regard to science learning while trying to offer more opportunities and focus on needed math skills. The Loveland teacher cannot focus only on strengthening computational skills but must continue to connect and involve computation with math analysis and understanding.

Somehow a "less is more" solution is needed here because class time and football practice time are not expandable. And yet remediation takes more time. It seems to me that more resources are needed. I would wonder if possibly a good place to begin is communication with the student (or the football player). Instead of "doing to" the student or player, it might be beneficial for the teacher/coach to communicate one-on-one with the student/player and share the data, the motivation, the confidence, and the overall plan that includes and is dependent upon the remediation. To broaden the possible resources perhaps parent(s) and peers could be involved.

The remediation plan can focus on providing extra time and practice on skill improvement. This can take place in addition to football practice and classroom time. During this time, the student/player spends focused time on monitored practice with skills either alone or with a coach/teacher or with a peer or parent. Careful guidance and monitoring can insure that this time is efficiently, productively, and correctly used to improve weak skills. Feedback regarding skill improvement and next steps is important along the way. During football practice/class time more advanced concepts and performance can be addressed, knowing that the improvement taking place with the remediation practice will continue to improve performance in the classroom and on the field.

The point is that the player/student knows that there is important purpose for the remediation plan and there is a team of people supporting continuous improvement. Stepping back, this thinking can be extended to every player/student in that players/students with strong basic skills can similarly develop in advanced areas and seek additional challenge.

This leads to a more clear definition of what a coach and teacher do. They support the individual growth of each of their individual players/students. And through communication and individualization, everyone involved is motivated to continue to strengthen and develop. A good coach or teacher has experience in knowing the best development plan for each student/player at each developmental stage. I guess this is why the better football teams have lots of assistant coaches. I guess this is why the better teachers could use some assistant teachers... And why does Finland have the top academic test scores in the world? Their classrooms are filled with assistant teachers. Interesting.

The Creative Profession

What other professions are as creative as teaching? In the advertisement section of today's newspaper is a Back to School ad from a crafts store offering artist gallery wrapped canvas "buy one, get one for 1 cent". That is a good deal that a teacher can make use of because that is all we do as teachers. We don't hesitate to roll out a fresh piece of canvas constantly as we prepare, erase, edit, and hone our planning ideas. A teacher has the privileged opportunity to choose from endless options how to offer the curriculum for students.

From choosing the quantity of content to present in a lesson, to selecting the approach that will be used to "hook" the students into becoming engaged with the content, to deciding how students will bring forth prior knowledge they have about the content, to wondering about how the students will interact with the skills and knowledge involved with the content, to offering application opportunities for the students to experience their new abilities, the choices go on and on. Teachers also craft how they will motivate the student learning. This decision is influenced by the rapport and relationship the teacher has with the students as the school year evolves. The teacher is continuously diagnosing everything possible about each of the students in planning how best to connect the new content with the nature and interests of the students.

There is another level of creative planning that is taking place at the same time but on another plane of thinking. That would be the decisions the teacher is making about the style of his/her own personality that the teacher will use to share himself/herself with the students. A caring teacher will pay attention to their role and manner of being that they will use with the students during the lesson. It is not just about the content, the lesson plan, and the students. It is about the role and style of the teacher during the lesson, too. The personal attitude that the teacher has during the lesson will influence the learning by the students. One habit I developed when teaching middle school mathematics was to say out loud to the students before teaching a new skill, "oh, I love teaching this skill to students for the first time!" Not only did saying this out loud intrigue and grab the students' interest, but it always revved me up, too. And, honestly, I meant it when I said it.

When the teacher consciously thinks about and plans for the excitement and intensity that he/she will bring to the lesson, not only will it become a part of the lesson, it will be positive and purposeful. And isn't that what a professional does? The professional actor or athlete does not only plan for their script or their physical movements, but the part of their planning that makes the difference is their own motivation and energy level they plan to bring to their performance. Just like the master teacher.

The New, True 3 R's in Education: Preparing to Start a New School Year

The key to maximizing a learning experience? Relationship, relationship, relationship. Ask someone to describe a successful learning experience in their past. Watch them hesitate and then smile. Watch the comfort and enjoyment they show as they proceed to confidently tell you what they learned, how they learned, how they felt during and about the experience, and how positive they are about the people involved in the learning experience including themselves! Watch the joy they exhibit as they relive the experience and the way the memories of it make them feel. See the energy flow as they share with you the details of their challenge and success with learning.

The memorable learning experiences we have usually involve an accomplishment that was significant and required focus and effort often involving new knowledge and new skills. In describing our successful learning experience we often share about relationships. In some stories it will be about the relationship that we developed with a teacher, coach or guide. Because we trusted the teacher at some point in the experience, we were able to overcome or overproduce in reaching our goal. In some stories, it will be about the relationship that we developed with other participants. We certainly remember whom we were with when we summited the 14,000+ foot mountain peak! In some stories it will be about the relationship that we had with ourself. We pushed ourself further than we thought possible or we proved to ourself that we could or we pursued inspiration and achieved.

There are no more important aspects of a teacher's classroom to prepare for at the start of a new school year or to look towards during the school year when a teacher feels a tension in her classroom than those of relationships. 

Teacher to Student:

Students intuitively sense the attitude and energy a teacher has for them. Students will reflect that attitude and energy back to the teacher in return. If the teacher is positive, prepared, present, and polite, the students are most likely to respond to that modeling. Students can detect honesty and integrity and are eager to find those qualities in a teacher. They are hoping as they enter the classroom that their teacher will be patient, kind, and a worthy guide. Students want to be successful with new and challenging learning experiences. They will respond to trust and to worthy and appropriate challenge when they are provided with structure, autonomy, and interconnectedness.

Student to Student:

For some students, learning is seen as direct engagement between student and the teacher or the student and the curriculum. For many students, learning is expedited when they can learn with and from other students. In a classroom where the structure assures students of academic, social, and emotional safety during all risk-taking events, students benefit from learning from each other, from reflecting on their understanding and progress as compared with others, and from becoming teachers themselves as they help others with the new learning experiences, knowledge, and skills.

Student to Self:

Motivation, responsibility, accountability, sense of progress, momentum, discipline towards learning new knowledge and skills - there are many aspects impacting learning that are directly influenced by the student's personal sense, expectations, and habits as a learner and as a person. All of these are variables that can be influenced during the school year by the teacher, by other students, by the expectations of the classroom, and/or by the maturity and development of the student himself.

Relationships are definitely important factors that impact student achievement that are worthy of the teacher's conscious consideration and planning. Developing supportive conditions for positive relationships does not come at the expense of rigor and high expectations for learning. Relationships provide an important and essential foundation for the learning that will occur. The attention the teacher gives to the importance of relationships will influence and go hand in hand with the structure the teacher creates regarding classroom management rules and procedures and the amount and qualities of the autonomy that will be offered to students. Structure, involvement within relationships, and autonomy are the three legs of the stool that will optimize the chance that this year will be one of those successful learning experiences that the student will recall when in the future they are asked to describe a successful learning experience they have had.

Developing Reflection and Efficacy in All Teachers

Teacher Orientation That Makes a Difference

In a nation facing a surge of new teachers, we face a serious question: What teacher orientation promotes teacher learning? No teacher comes to the classroom totally prepared to be an effective instructor and manager of students. Research clearly shows us that teaching and learning are far more complex than ever thought. So the question remains: How do we ensure that all students get the best teachers?

To answer this question, we must examine ways to help both beginning and experienced teachers to become motivated educators who aspire to perpetual growth. Becoming an effective educator involves combining natural talents with an attitude that is receptive to new ideas and a willingness to grow – this is what educators bring to the classroom. The essential ingredient that teachers need from others is professional development that can promote teacher learning in all teachers and can help continual growth be a state of mind for all educators.

We encourage students to become life-long learners; we must encourage teachers to do so as well. And we need to ensure that they have the professional development they need.

How does the right professional development make a difference? Let’s look at some examples.

Joseph had been a 2nd-grade teacher for 25 years in the Los Angeles public school system. He had very little interactions with other teachers or other adults outside of his classroom. He had no sense of his strengths as a teacher. He was getting “burned out” with teaching by his own admission. Joseph then attended a summer institute that focused on effective teaching research and strategies. At the summer institute he was helped to reflect upon his practice in light of the research. He was inspired by the realization that his practice in many ways matched best practice as described by the research. That successful reflection brought about motivation, confidence, a sense of efficacy, and a new desire to invest more energy and effort into not only continuing his teaching but to look more at new ways to grow professionally as a teacher. The flame that was burning out was rekindled, brighter than ever.

Nancy had been an elementary teacher and then a middle school language arts teacher in a Denver suburb. She had always lacked confidence in her teaching and looked at herself as less than others in the profession. She decided to go through the process of applying for National Board certification. That process, offered by the National Board for Professional Teaching Standards, took Nancy step-by-step through a reflective writing experience that invited her to compare her practice to the standards set by the NBPTS. Through that intensive reflection experience, Nancy saw herself measure up to many of the aspects of the National Board standards. She also saw where and how she could improve her practice to better meet those standards. At the end of the application process, her confidence and motivation were high. The following year she tried new strategies in her teaching with a sense of efficacy supported by constant reflection throughout the process. Her love for her teaching and the enjoyment it brought her increased immensely.

Research tells us that when teachers feel efficacious and that feeling is grounded in solid practice, students succeed (Datnow & Castellano, 2000; Hord, 1997; McLaughlin & Talbert, 1993; Rosenholtz, 1989). Under the circumstances, the urgency for quality professional development to build this efficacy is profound.

Building Efficacy for Teaching and Learning: Roles for Reflection and Application

A retired army colonel was asked how efficacy is built within a new soldier. He replied that a confident sense of preparedness and readiness to tackle new challenges is developed through extensive and supported training provided by a worthy guide. The new soldier shares with his trainer a sense of value for the training and understands its purpose. There is no difference between this very human experience and that of an educator developing professional mastery in the struggle to meet student needs.

The type of orientation that promotes teacher learning involves two primary features: 1) teaching and supporting teacher reflection, and 2) helping teachers build efficacy through recognition of successful experiences. Reflection is an essential practice in effective teachers as they constantly review the effectiveness of their teaching in an effort to identify what works and what should be changed. Efficacy is developed over time as a teacher experiences success in the profession and develops into a competent classroom leader.

Teachers develop a sense of efficacy when, first, they are provided with opportunities to reflect upon their strengths as set by a standard and are supported through experiences of training that help them to develop new and useful skills. Second, when teachers are supported by a knowledgeable guide who is seen as worthy, in a setting that holds high expectations, opportunity, and choice, then all teachers can become more successful as educators. One thing to remember during this process: professional growth in teaching involves personal growth as well. Personal growth requires individual efficacy, motivation, and optimism, all of which are developed through systematic, purposeful reflection. Timely and honest feedback effectively delivered to teachers in an ongoing manner by the worthy guide is critical. The effective administrator or staff development facilitator will have many of the attributes of a good coach and will help all teachers develop their ability to objectively review their instructional and other classroom practices. The third ingredient for success in the process is adequate time. Effective professional development also provides time for teachers to plan and to use new ideas while also providing time for purposeful reflections on the impact of using those new ideas.

Reflection should not only be taught, but also modeled in the delivery of professional development.  In fact, reflection should be modeled and taught as part of every teacher’s professional growth. A simple model that promotes reflection is one that is used in the Educational Research and Dissemination (ER&D) Program developed by the American Federation of Teachers. ER&D trainers use a three-step process to promote reflection through the research.

Step 1: How is this idea different than what I do now?  How much do I know about this topic or idea?  What would / could be the benefits of implementing this change?

Step 2: What do I need to do to implement this idea?  How will I determine if it has positively impacted student achievement?

Step 3: After trying the new idea, reflect upon the impact.  Is it worth doing again?  How can I change the idea to make it more effective?

A simple scaffold to promote reflection, like the one above, offers a process to promote reflection.  If reflection is systematically taught and modeled, teachers can develop this most important disposition in teaching.

An important consideration in developing an orientation that promotes teacher learning involves the research on human needs by Connell and Wellborn (1991).  They suggest that engagement is optimized when the following three human needs are met: 1) competence, 2) relatedness to others, and 3) autonomy.  Supporting these basic needs can lead to the development of efficacy within teachers.

Competence. In teaching, the ability to manage a classroom and to help students learn requires a variety of skills. Professional development in the early part of a teacher’s career should focus on developing strong classroom management skills and on developing the art of planning successful learning activities. Competent teachers acquire these skills over time as they are exposed to new strategies in both formal and informal ways. As they learn about and try new strategies, they gain valuable experiences.

As a teacher’s competence grows, perspective is gained which leads to increased efficacy and allows for purposeful and powerful reflection. This cycle of reflecting upon growth leading to new learning develops the life-long learning cycle that can be modeled for students.

Relatedness to others. This is an area of professional development that has received attention in recent years.  The idea of teachers meeting to talk about best practices in what Dufour & Eaker (1998) call “professional learning communities” is an example of professional development that supports the needs of teachers. This social interaction provides an opportunity for teachers to reflect upon and share managerial and instructional strategies and develops the collective efficacy of the staff. Conversations are focused on specific issues that teachers face within their school as they develop a sense of community and support. The collective exchange of ideas results in better solutions to the challenges of teaching and learning than can be achieved individually.

Autonomy. What we need to develop in teachers is their autonomy as professionals.  We need to help teachers discover how to be their own professional development coach, how to apply what they learn in their classroom, and how to continually reflect to promote ongoing growth. Professional development needs to develop the teacher's ability to choose what ideas fit his or her own style of teaching.  Additionally, teachers need to develop ways to become discriminating consumers of professional development offerings.

Teachers should be supported in learning how to use reflective practices so that they can become their own autonomous professional development coach. When we can identify ways to promote autonomous, self-directed, reflective teachers, we can start to improve professional development in education as a whole.  What are the characteristics of experienced teachers who continue to grow throughout their career? As we identify the qualities that promote reflection and professional growth we can develop programs that help teachers become their own coach.

Teachers, as with all individuals, have protective egos that act as a barrier to change. At the outset of problem-solving activities, teachers must have the confidence to evaluate new ideas and assess whether the innovation will be useful in their practice. The professional developer as a worthy guide can be effective by identifying that a new change is already in a teacher’s understanding. Through surfacing prior knowledge and frame of reference for a teacher, through listening to and understanding a teacher’s prior experience, and by personally relating to and listening to a teacher’s sharing of what they need to grow, the professional developer can begin to know the teacher as a person and then can help them to grow.

When professional development is delivered with high expectations, through a positive relationship, and supportively respects a teacher’s view of herself, then growth potential exists. In such a positive, trusting environment, the professional development coach might use phrases like the following to promote teacher growth:

“I believe you can.” “Don’t be afraid to fail.” “Your job is safe.” “Believe change has value.” “Take small steps.” “This will be better and easier for you and your students.” “You have the time this will take.” “Try this out, it is cool.” “You are great. Take a chance.” “Make this change in a way that works for you.”

Bringing it all together

When a professional development experience meets the human needs of autonomy, relatedness to others, and competence, a relationship of trust has the opportunity to occur if it appears that the guide is worthy and that the training has value. Scaffolds and models must be provided so that effective training can take place. Opportunities and supports for articulation, reflection, and exploration must then occur so that efficacy is developed and a sense of success can take place. This framework for building efficacy through reflection supported by a worthy guide will provide for motivation and optimism leading to further professional growth.

References:

Connell, J.P., Wellborn, J.G. (1991). Competence, autonomy, and relatedness: A motivational analysis of self-system processes. In M.R. Gunnar & L.A. Sroufe (Eds.), Self processes in development: Minnesota Symposium on Child Psychology (Vol. 23, pp. 43-77). Hillsdale, NJ: Erlbaum.

Datnow, A., & Castellano, M. (2000). Teachers’ responses to Success for All: How beliefs, experiences, and adaptations shape implementation. American Educational Research Journal, 37(3), 775-779.

Dufour, R., & Eaker, R. (1998). Professional learning communities: Best practices for enhancing student achievement. Bloomington, IN: National Educational Service.

Hord, S. (1997). Professional learning communities: Communities of continuous inquiry and development. Austin, TX: Southwest Educational Development Laboratory.

McLaughlin, M.W., & Talbert, J. (1993). Contexts that matter for teaching and learning. Palo Alto, CA: Stanford University, Center for Research on the Context of Secondary School Teaching.

Rosenholtz, S. (1989). Teacher’s workplace: The social organization of schools. New York, NY: Longman.

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Looking Beyond Our Present System of Teacher Evaluation

In the business of public education we are obsessed with the process of teacher evaluation.  We spend hours of work trying to create the perfect tool that will allow administrators to evaluate teachers fairly with some degree of integrity while at the same time providing support and input to help teachers grow.  Despite this effort, however, we still seem to struggle with getting rid of the bad teachers in the profession and rewarding the good ones.  Most of the systems we develop to evaluate teachers are too cumbersome and administrators lack the time they need to visit classrooms on a regular basis.  Additionally, most evaluation tools seem to be somewhat “event-based” meaning the teacher’s evaluation is based on some sort of administrator's planned visit to the class.  The teacher then prepares a super lesson and the administrator bases the evaluation from a limited amount of observational evidence.   The evaluation process does not respond as teachers progress in their career and gain more skills.  If you ask most good teachers, the evaluation process is often just a paper game that goes in a file.

     Now we have a new law in our state that boldly says that teachers will be evaluated on their ability to create student growth during the year.  Those smart politicians at the capitol decided that if we mandate by law that teachers create growth in their students then it would somehow occur.  There is a little problem, however. We don’t really know what student growth is and we lack the resources and training to measure it with any degree of reliability or validity.  Perhaps these same politicians should invent a magic wand of value-added assessment that would measure how much growth each student makes and then we can finally find out who are the good and bad teachers.  But there is still one big question: What is student growth?  Obviously, the politicians have a simple answer: data from standardized tests.  As I thought about what I do to cause students to grow during the school year, the question got delightfully more complex.  Student growth is certainly more than test scores or even knowledge of science.

So what is student growth? We all know what the politicians think it is and how it’s measured, but do the teachers agree?  When you ask teachers about student growth you get some very interesting answers, and ironically, very few mention standardized test scores.  When you talk to teachers, who create student growth on a daily basis, you quickly realize that students grow in many ways.  In our society we are obsessed with measuring cognitive ability and subsequently assign great value to test scores.  But in schools, where learning is occurring, people seem to value many other aspects of student growth that can’t be assessed on a state test.  Teachers know that there are a whole lot of things going on at school that support student academic growth that just can’t be measured.  You will often hear stories of emotional or social growth that occurs during the course of the day.  When I hear my teaching teammates talk about students succeeding and growing, they are always referring to specific things the student did, not some abstract measure on a state test given once a year.

I’ve studied teacher evaluation for almost 15 years and one of the most troubling trends is the new focus on test scores.  Because we gathered the data in statewide tests we feel compelled to use the data for teacher evaluation regardless of whether it’s fair or valid.  This use of test scores to evaluate teachers is so ridiculous to anyone who knows the profession, yet that is exactly what the politicians do in many states.  They pass laws that mandate student growth, yet few politicians know how we are going to measure this outside of the once-a-year test.  So I decided to sit down with some other teachers and try to figure out what is student growth, or at least expand our understanding of all the ways students grow during the school year.  I thought it might be useful to go past the present systems of teacher evaluation, which essentially measure what I call minimum proficiency (doing the simple stuff like taking attendance and showing up for meetings), and find out what good teachers do to create student growth.  Most systems for evaluating teachers are only useful in the first five years of a career, when teachers are growing most rapidly.  After that time teacher evaluation becomes somewhat of a waste of time for both administrators and teachers.  Good teachers go well beyond the current evaluation expectations and do all sorts of things that contribute to student growth.  If we could identify some of these things we might find out a little more about good teaching and how hard it really is, as well as start to expand our understanding of student growth. 

  When you look at schools and teachers, one thing jumps out at you right away.  There are teachers who hold a growth mindset throughout their career, and there are teachers who work hard for the first few years and then coast the rest of their career.  Both teachers receive the same rating and pay in most systems of teacher evaluation, however the teacher with the growth mindset is almost always more effective over the course of their career.  They are constantly seeking to improve for the sake of doing the job better.  They study the craft of teaching and cognitive science in an effort to better serve the students they teach.  They lead by providing professional development that is grounded in the research and validated with their experience. The basic flaw in teacher evaluation is its focus on adequacy rather than excellence. There are lots of reasons our present system fails to identify excellence, not the least of which is the fact many administrators who evaluate the teachers are not particularly skilled classroom instructors.  Additionally, you can’t force people into a growth mindset as this is an intrinsic motivation in good teachers.  You can’t mandate that teachers put in extra effort and long hours, but that is what every good teacher I know does on a daily basis.  So the bottom line is most good teachers go well beyond what they are contracted to do for no other reason then they love children and teaching and feel a responsibility to continue to improve at their craft.

Because good teachers do different things to be good, it is difficult in a standardized evaluation system to capture what makes great teaching.  Most systems focus on overt teacher behaviors but fail to measure much of what actually teaches children.  Because the evaluation system is really designed to identify common attributes of successful teachers, the system is ultimately more useful to emerging teachers. The individual talents, interests, and passion a teacher brings to the classroom are often crucial to the achievement of students, yet we fail to measure these important aspects of our teachers.   

There is an important thread that seems to be present in the fabric of all good teachers.  Good teachers all have a desire to constantly improve. Carol Dweck describes it as the “growth mindset”, this belief that one can improve with hard work and practice. The efficacy and courage to try new ideas is based on this “can do” attitude.  The funny thing is, most teachers who have this growth mindset improve without even knowing it.  They seem to be motivated by forces greater than money and certainly validate the work of Daniel Pink in his book, "Drive".  They never seem to be done with planning or creating new ideas.  They have a great desire to work hours of overtime for free, with no greater reward than the students in their classroom learning.  Good teachers are intrinsically driven.  From a financial sense school districts should not even worry about rewarding excellence in the classroom as these teachers will improve and perform beyond their contract obligations regardless of the pay or working conditions.

Five New Criteria for Evaluating Teachers The following work might just be called five things good teachers do on a regular basis.  It might even be useful in identifying or measuring teacher excellence, but the main purpose is to expand our understanding of student growth.  These are five things teachers do to achieve exceptional growth and that should get the attention of a lot of people given that all public school teachers are now mandated to create student growth.       

  The five teacher qualities include: 1) Inspiration, 2) Social Context in Classrooms, 3) Relationships among students, parents, and colleagues, 4) Applications of Cognitive Science, 5) Creativity / Innovation. Each of these five teacher qualities will be presented with some elaboration to help define the quality through specific examples.  It is important to note that these five categories are not the only things good teachers do.  If you examine each of them you will clearly see that they are directly linked to student achievement and growth.  When you ask good teachers how they get students to learn, more often than not they start the answer with positive relationships and modeling hard work.  The research is quite clear on the role student perceptions about their teacher's competence plays in their ultimate effort and engagement in the class.  A teacher evaluation system that focuses on these qualities can guide all teachers to grow in these areas and will ultimately lead to greater student growth and achievement.

Inspiration    

Great teachers inspire students to work hard and learn.  They seem to create a sense of purpose in the classroom through positive modeling and personal success.  Inspiring kids is talked about as a central theme and purpose of education, yet teacher evaluation does not recognize this important aspect of our job. We inspire kids in a variety of ways, often times without even knowing it.  

1) Work ethic - Good teachers work longer hours and more productively than other teachers.  They are at work early, they stay late, and they are grading on the weekends.  Students know which teachers spend more time working at the profession because their classroom demonstrates it.  Good teachers don’t complain about the extra time they spend on work, they just do it because they know it is necessary to do the job right.

2) Good teachers have a high degree of self-efficacy. This is closely linked to their growth mindset and the desire to create meaningful and engaging lessons.  This “can do” attitude is infectious and students develop their own efficacy by the positive modeling of the teacher.

3) Good teachers inspire students through healthy meaningful relationships.  They model getting along with other people and show students the virtues and values of developing good relationships at home and at school.

4) Good teachers inspire students with their dedication to the profession.  They model interest in the profession by studying the research and constantly trying new ideas to strengthen their teaching.  Good teachers are interested in their professional development and incorporate new ideas into practice. Students see an adult enjoying work, and that inspires them to see their career as more than a job.

5) Good teachers love what they do and inspire students to value learning and knowing the content of the subjects they teach.  They go well beyond reading the book and watching films. They model their passion for learning by studying their subject and continuing to grow throughout their career.

6) Teachers inspire students through their personal accomplishments.  Good teachers inspire students with volunteer work, their athletic ability, musical ability or other non-school skills.  It’s our duty to model outside interests and healthy hobbies.  Kids look up to teachers who model outside interests and accomplishments.

Positive Social climate

The age of cognitive accountability and value-added education has turned its back on perhaps the most foundational of all teaching skills: the relationship with the student.  In our lust for measuring academic ability and demonstrated skills we have often turned students into numbered widgets.  The best teachers still know the power of relationships and understand that this aspect of teaching is crucial to student growth.  The best teachers use their classroom to teach social as well as academic lessons and they consistently model positive interactions with both students and adults. So much emphasis has been put on test scores and academic achievement that many teachers see these as the entire measure of their efforts. The best teachers know that students are more productive and can potentially learn much more in a classroom that provides a positive social atmosphere.  

  1) Social Learning Structures is a fancy term I use for how well the teacher is using cooperative small group learning strategies.  We know the power of students working together in well-planned lessons. The best teachers tap into the social learning system. A successful group learning activity depends on planning and innovation coupled with solid rules and procedures that are overtly taught to the students.  Good teachers employ a variety of strategies to help students work together in class.

2) Good teachers create an atmosphere where all people in the room feel safe and valued. Time is taken to teach students how to interact in a positive and productive manor. Perhaps most important is the teacher modeling respectful and positive interactions with everyone in the room.

3) If a teacher does the two things above well the result is a positive social climate.  Some classrooms have a certain comfort with students working together.  The students know their roles and they see the power of sharing ideas and working collaboratively. The teacher has created a classroom where positive interactions and planned social learning combine to create an atmosphere of productivity.

4) Inclusion of all students and providing fair access to learning is mandated in all contracts.  Some teachers do a much better job than others, however, in meeting the needs of all students.  The skilled teacher goes beyond modifying and accommodating work to provide an equitable social atmosphere where students of all abilities work together and respect each other’s strengths and weaknesses.  Building an inclusive social environment is crucial to providing fair access to education, yet few classrooms are really inclusive.

5) The last aspect of social atmosphere is the look of the room.  Some teachers spend a huge amount of time setting up their room to inspire students.  They post student work, have topical displays, and provide interesting thought-provoking demonstrations.  Some rooms have blank walls with a few Garfield posters saying: “do your best”. Enough said. The physical environment should inspire students and spark their interest in the subjects you teach.    

  Relationships with Colleagues/Students/Parents  

  The ability of good teachers to build and maintain positive relationships with both students and colleagues is an important aspect of a healthy school. Yet many teachers do not feel obligated to even be nice to their students.  Ironically, if you study the teaching contract, nowhere does it state that the teacher should build positive relationships with the students.  And some teachers base their classroom management style on purposefully not establishing positive relationships with students for fear of losing control. These teachers break no rules and their classroom is more often than not “under control”.  Good teachers know that positive relationships are essential to both the social atmosphere of the classroom as well as the engagement of students in the learning.                  

1) The best teachers strive to build positive relations with three groups of people in the school community.  First, and most important is the students.  The second group is parents, and they can be your biggest asset or worst enemy depending on the relationship you build. The last group is the adults you work with in the building.  Anyone who has worked in a school knows it’s kind of like a big family.  This creates unique challenges in the work place, as teachers must often work with people who they don’t necessarily respect professionally.  The best teachers are positive yet honest and work to get along with all adults as best as possible.  The research is clear on this aspect of the school community.  When the staff has positive relationships the students see appropriate models for behavior and ultimately achieve more growth.

2) Communication with parents is something that is mandated in most teaching contracts and almost all schools have policies regarding when to contact parents when students have academic or social problems.  The best teachers use communication in a more positive, proactive way.  Weekly newsletters and positive messages home about students can serve to open communication lines with parents.  Websites with homework and upcoming due dates can keep parents, students, and the teacher on the same page in regard to expectations.  There are a variety of ways to use technology to share information about students, both academic and behavioral with parents.  Additionally, positive information about school helps parents feel more comfortable with the teacher and therefore more likely to communicate concerns directly with the teacher rather than involving administrators.

3) Certainly one of the most challenging aspects of teaching is the need to be “on” all the time.  The best teachers are consistent in their behavior and treatment of both students and adults.  This is particularly important with students as they depend on teachers to be consistently caring and supportive.  Inconsistent behavior scares students and disrupts the social safety the teacher strives to create in a classroom.  Moody teachers are hard to work with and students tend to not trust them.  The importance of consistency in student relationships cannot be understated.

4) Modeling positive relationships is more powerful than talking about them.  Students see the adults in the building as role models for their behavior.  If the adults in the school strive to get along and model positive relationships the students will follow.  Additionally, research shows that schools in which adults have positive relationships also have higher academic achievement.

5) Good teachers take care to create an equitable and fair environment. It is challenging to treat 150 children equitably all the time.  Important to note, however, that students see this as one of the most important attributes of a good teacher. 

6) The best teachers are perceived by students as caring about their success in school.  Students work harder if they believe the teacher cares.

  Application of Cognitive Science  

It always surprises me how ignorant many teachers are of how the brain works.  One would think that teachers would study the process of learning and try to use this information for the benefit of students.  But this is not the case.  Many teachers can recite brain research but when you go in their classroom you see a most “unfriendly” place for learning.  In recent years our understanding of how students learn has grown exponentially.  The best teachers have been following these developments and incorporating them into their instructional practices.  There is a good reason that psychologists recently changed the name of cognitive theory to cognitive science.  The best teachers understand and employ the ideas of cognitive science to create a more effective learning environment.

Important to note in the title of this section I added in the word application.  Lots of people go to in-service days and read books on cognition, but the best teachers actually take the theory and put it to work in their classroom.      

Assessment Literacy

There is a big push in education to promote higher-level thinking and complex reasoning.  If you study documents like the 21st Century Skills they simply skip the foundational skills that students need to practice and master and jump right into abstract higher-level learning. The good teacher knows what their students can do and provides the proper background knowledge prior to doing higher-level thinking.  We talk about developing well-rounded, critical thinking global citizens, but our standards reduce school to emphasizing memorization and “drill and kill”.  Good teachers have the creativity to build authentic higher-level thinking assignments that are of appropriate difficultly.

Good teachers design their own tests. The questions match the content taught, and there are a variety of different kinds of questions.  Good teachers spend time reading students work.  They also take time to design creative authentic assessment tasks that challenge students to think and create and demonstrate their learning in a variety of ways. Collectively, the assigned assessments clearly demonstrate student growth and mastery of the curriculum.  Good teachers also understand the value of formative assessment, and it is built into their lesson design. 

Good teachers understand that reflection is an integral part of learning. They debrief lessons with the students and take time at the end of a unit to summarize how the learning fits into the bigger picture.  Good teachers have students reflect about their effort and social contributions as well as their academic achievement.

Good teachers understand that the key to student learning is engagement. They design classes that are cognitively friendly and promote student interest by using:

•Variety and Pacing

•Choice

•Thinking time

•Social interaction

•Challenging questions

•Learning relevant to students’ lives

•Connections to students’ prior knowledge   

All of these promote student engagement in the lesson.

Good teachers consistently employ procedures that promote productivity. The students know what they need to do.  Good teachers plan lessons so the different parts of the lesson complement each other.  They are structured and organized in a way to promote student autonomy while maintaining productivity.

Good teachers create their own learning experiences. They take the assigned standards and curricular topics and create fun learning experiences for students.  They don’t teach by having students silently read. They interact with students and create an interactive classroom environment.

Creativity and Innovation

The last aspect of good teaching can’t be taught, but it does improve with experience.  Creativity is hard to define, but most people agree it’s one of those hard to measure attributes of great teachers.  All teachers take ideas from other teachers and tweak them to fit their style.  But some teachers go beyond and create authentic complex tasks that inspire students.  They create games and projects that motivate students to learn in fun ways.

We can also broaden our view of creativity to outside the classroom. Many teachers are leaders in their building by coming up with creative solutions to challenges within their school.  Some teachers create professional development or offer their insights beyond the scope of the district.   No teacher evaluation system can ever mandate creativity, but some teachers have it and use it to become better at the craft of teaching.

If you have managed to stay with me through all this discourse, I would like to return to the central question: What is student growth?  By examining what good teachers do I think we can see that students grow in various ways.  Social growth and the development of personal efficacy are not measured on the state test. Yet developing these personal traits is ultimately more important in adult life than academic ability.  If we are going to evaluate teachers on their ability to create growth through the year, we need to measure more than academic growth.  Additionally, we will need to measure how teachers create growth in new and creative ways.  The state test is not going to give us any insight into which teachers are creating student growth so we will need to invent some new assessment tools for teacher evaluation.

The five teacher qualities described above all seem to promote student growth in different ways.  Since the state test is only going to give us insight into academic skills and knowledge, how will we measure all the other student growth?  To get an understanding of how much a teacher inspires a student or creates social growth we are going to need to talk to the students and to take a fresh look at teacher evaluation.  I propose a three- step process:

1) Classroom Observation and Professional Dialogue Each teacher would have 10-12 hours of classroom observation followed with reflection time.  The evaluator needs to be skilled enough to provide insight and recognize complex lessons.  The mentor/evaluator would need to follow the class for several sessions to see how a unit of study develops.  This person would also need to be uniquely qualified to comment on various kinds of student growth occurring within the classroom.

2) Classroom Assessments of Academic Growth Teachers must validate their own worth by developing valid and reliable measures of academic student growth.  If we are going to be evaluated on how much student growth we create, I think we better get to work developing ways to measure growth at the classroom level.  No state test is going to be able to capture student growth as well as a teacher-designed local assessment.  As a profession our assessment literacy is quite low.  Most teachers do not know much about designing assessments so this will be professional development need.

3) Customer Survey  We need to start asking students and parents how did the teacher impact student growth?  Teacher evaluation fails to collect some of the most important data.  Many teachers don’t value what the students say, while others simply lack the courage to find out.  In either case we are missing a key piece of information in measuring how teachers create growth.  Students have unique insight into the role their teacher played in helping them grow - we just need to figure out how to ask. 

If you want to start evaluating teachers better you will need to spend money.  Identifying what great teachers do is very difficult.  The fact of the matter is that some teachers are more developed in these five areas than others.  Some teachers are funny and the kids love them.  Some teachers know their content better than others.  The problem with teacher evaluation is we don’t consider these unique attributes because they are not standardized.  If you remember a great teacher in your life, I bet you remember them for a reason related to their personality.  The bottom line is that teachers bring many talents to class everyday, and our present evaluation system does not capture many of them. 

The politicians have it right, student growth is what teachers should focus on.  The only problem is that their definition of student growth (test scores) is somewhat anemic.  If you want to find the good teachers in the profession, find the ones creating growth.  Remember that the data downtown will not be of much use to you in your search. If you want to see student growth you better come out to the classroom and see what goes on. You will see teachers who build positive relationships and inspire their students.  You will see teachers that value social as well as academic learning.  You will see professionals who are dedicated to the art and science of education.  It isn’t easy to measure what teachers do to create growth because it’s often individualized for a particular student.  Efforts to “standardize” excellence in any system of teacher evaluation will ultimately fail because the ways teachers create student growth is as different as the kids they teach.

Willingham's latest book comments

When Can You Trust the Experts: How to Tell Good Science from Bad in Education

Daniel T. Willingham (Author)

Let's give this a read and share our thoughts about it in this post. Thanks! I don't know who, if anyone, may ever join with us in these posted conversations. But so far it feels as if this may be a great forum for us to hold lots of our good conversations! Please keep subscribing to each posted topic so that you will be notified when I add a comment. You can "subscribe" near the place where you are about to type in a comment. Thanks!!

Implications??

The following came from a USA Today article by Greg Toppo: In 1988, the typical (public school) teacher had 15 years of experience, according to research by the University of Pennsylvania's Richard Ingersoll. By 2008, it was down to one year. Wow - that has to have huge implications in many directions, John.

What is Teaching Style?

What is Teaching Style?

When we examine the profession of classroom teaching, the development of one's “teaching style” is considered to be an important step in becoming a proficient educator.  Each of us brings a unique personality and set of experiences when we start training to be a teacher, and these things clearly impact the rate at which we develop as a classroom instructor and ultimately how effective we become as a teacher.  If we want to develop the best teachers who will have the greatest impact on our children, it is worth spending some time examining a simple question:  Are there certain characteristics in an individual's personality that make them a better classroom teacher?   In other words, how much of what we do is innate and how much can be learned?  As I’ve pondered this question, the answer appears to be much more complicated than I initially thought.  I have also realized that the answer may have serious implications for those we actually train to be teachers.  The ultimate quality of a teacher might have a lot more to do with who they are as opposed to what they know and can learn.  The pervasive attitude in our country is that anybody off the street can be trained to be a classroom teacher.  The job is looked at as a lower middle class profession for those who couldn’t get a better degree.  Ironically, we talk about teachers as these great sculptors of the future, yet as a society we put our best and brightest everywhere but in the classroom.

    In recent articles, various researchers have sounded the need for developing quality classroom teachers by teaching them “research-based” strategies for student success. They have concluded that classroom teaching is sort of like assembling cars.  If you can learn the skills of the profession- you can become a quality teacher regardless of your personality or innate ability.  This perspective about teaching logically follows the cultural problem with education in the United States.  We talk a good line: Our education system is important to us, and the future of this country… Yet we fail to adequately fund any efforts to that end.  Additionally, we have turned classroom teaching into a second-class profession with little effort to encourage or fund excellence.  The result is a system that breeds mediocrity and perpetuates adequacy rather than excellence.  The researchers are right, there are a whole set of skills one must learn to survive in the classroom, but these are only part of what we do.  You can learn how to survive in the classroom, but does that make you a good teacher?

This whole question of personality versus skills comes to the surface when we review teacher evaluation systems. Evaluating teachers is a challenging task given the individual nature of what we do, coupled with the complex and variable environment of the classroom. Most teacher evaluation systems focus on what can be learned rather than what is innate. Obviously these systems must be fair, and therefore only assess skills that can be learned. Teacher evaluation systems as a whole work very well in developing young teachers and assessing the skills they need to survive in the classroom. Progressive teacher evaluation systems today reflect the wealth of information we have learned about research-based practices as they relate to successful classroom instruction.  Over the past 20 years, we have seen the focus of teacher evaluation move from teacher behaviors to student behaviors. Most teacher evaluation systems also reflect current research in cognitive science and other relevant fields of psychology.  Despite these great strides in identifying and measuring effective practices, teacher evaluation systems in general still struggle to measure excellence. Innate talents such as humor, work ethic and communication skills cannot really be measured fairly from one individual to another yet these are the talents that often distinguish excellent teachers.  In the following pages I want to explore how a teacher develops their style, and offer some observations about excellence.  The process of how a teacher integrates what they learn about instruction with their own unique talents is crucial in developing quality teachers who continue to grow throughout their career.

Developing a Teaching Style

The foundational research on developing and training teachers refers to the importance of a teacher developing their personal style.  I’ve never really defined what this means but it seems to be the process of integrating what we learn about teaching with our own personality.  In our efforts to create good teachers we try to downplay the importance of the innate skills a teacher brings to the profession, and focus on what can be learned.  Initially this works great, as there is so much to learn about instruction and assessment at the classroom level.  However, over time a teacher incorporates the foundational skills into their practice and then their innate skills become much more important.  In this section I want to examine how those innate skills ultimately impact teacher quality and effectiveness.  I started by making a basic list of what is innate and what can be learned (see appendix).  This list is far from complete, but it does give us some interesting insights into how the individual personality of a teacher impacts their style.  As we examine different teaching styles, it’s worth looking at how certain personality traits can work positively and negatively in the development of a quality classroom teacher.

The following qualities I’ve described as innate in a teachers’ personality.  They can change over time, but ultimately filter and impact how a teacher implements what they learn into their practice. The importance of understanding how your personality affects your classroom instructional style is key to growing and developing into an excellent teacher.  As teachers reflect on their practice in an effort to improve, it is important to remember the human side of this profession.  Quality teachers use their innate abilities to their benefit while downplaying and compensating for weaknesses.  The best teachers do just what they are good at, but seek to identify and improve the areas where they are weak.    

Communication Ability

In broad terms, a basic characteristic of human personality is whether someone is outgoing or somewhat reserved in social settings.  Often these more outgoing people have an innate ability to make friends at a party, and ultimately they communicate more comfortably than less outgoing people.  When I refer to communication it also includes what might be called social affordances.  These are non-verbal things like posture and facial expressions that send important information to other people.  When we look at the world of a classroom teacher the ability to communicate clearly and create a welcoming environment is crucial to student success.

There is no doubt that having a more outgoing personality immediately puts you at an advantage in the classroom.  Teaching is acting, and the more comfortable the students see the teacher with their presence in the classroom, the more likely they are to believe the teacher is competent.  Communication plays a crucial role in how the students and their parents view the teacher and the school.  

Effective communication is important to the success of a classroom teacher.  The need to communicate to students, parents and colleagues is a crucial part of the job.  Although one can learn how to improve their ability to communicate, there are also several innate qualities that make some people better than others at this important task.  Perhaps the simplest aspect of communication is how you say things.  The inflections in your voice or the tone you use have a huge impact on how well people receive what you are saying.  Teachers are often challenged with concerned parents and students.  Patience and the ability to not loose your cool in tough conversations are crucial qualities in a teacher.  All administrators know that some teachers have the ability to solve problems with parents while others are constantly coming up on their radar.  In most cases, it’s not what the teacher says that gets them in trouble; it’s how they say things.  The ability to stay calm and defuse a problem before it escalates is part of one's character and personality.  In the social enterprise of public education, the ability to stay calm and not get angry in tough conversations is an attribute good teachers must have.

Another crucial aspect of communication is clarity. The ability to clearly convey your expectations to students and parents is often more of an art than a science.  Teachers need to use language that is appropriate for the audience.  The ability to clearly state expectations in rubrics or in writing out simple instructions is important to quality instruction.  A teacher’s ability to use concise language that creates meaning for the students is a huge asset.  Both orally and in written form, the ability to communicate clearly is a critical component of a teacher's style.

  Perhaps the most difficult to measure and describe are the non-verbal affordances we communicate as we interact with other people. Some people are more positive and upbeat in their very character. They smile more and interact with the people around them in positive ways. The importance of a smile and a spring in your step is crucial to setting the atmosphere in your classroom and school. Some teachers look tired. These are the ones who complain in the lounge a lot about the children. They walk the halls with their head down and don't interact with students or other members of the staff. Although these affordances cannot be measured in any teacher evaluation system, they are toxic to the social atmosphere of the school. Often these affordances are what create first impressions with both students and parents.

  Organization Skills

At first glace one might think that all teachers are inherently organized.  Obviously, the job is based on good planning and well-organized lessons that engage and motivate students. The fact of the matter, however, is some teachers are not well organized at all. The public would be surprised to see how many teachers come in day-to-day with little or no idea of what they're planning to do until class starts. These teachers have very little vision for the curriculum as a whole, and their class ends up being sound bites of information that have little continuity. For people who are innately well organized, the task of efficient and timely planning is much easier. Certain characteristics of organized people such as making lists and following a fairly consistent routine are very helpful in planning and maintaining a productive classroom.

  For those who struggle with organization, teaching is an inherently difficult career. Being organized is equated with effective planning and classroom operation. If the lesson is disorganized- where the teacher is unprepared, not only do the students suffer by not learning, but they make serious judgments about the teacher’s competence.  Since organization has a link to planning it is crucial that individuals compensate for weaknesses in this area. The ability to organize the curriculum and communicate this to students is ultimately what we do.  

As one reads this section about organization it seems that this character in a person's personality is extremely valuable in education. There is a dark side to being organized, however, in that organized people are often rigid and uncomfortable when their well-constructed plans must change.  Some teachers march through their planned curriculum with little regard for whether the students are learning or not.  Highly organized people sometimes struggle with spontaneity and the fluid environment of the classroom. Although lessons must be well planned and organized, they also must be adaptable and change as formative assessment data provides information about student progress.  

Evaluating a teacher's organizational skills is somewhat tricky. Some teachers appear to be completely disorganized by their messy classroom environment. Their curriculum, however, is highly organized and makes sense to the students. In other cases the teacher may appear to be well organized in their physical classroom environment. Papers may be stacked in tidy little piles with the desks straight and in neat tidy rows. The posters on the walls are hung perfectly straight and spaced uniformly throughout the room. Although this teacher appears to be well organized, the curriculum they present may be inherently disorganized. The teacher may lack a vision of what they're trying to do for the week, the month, or the year. But since their classroom environment appears to be organized, an administrator evaluating the teacher may be fooled into thinking they are effective. So don't equate the physical appearance of a teacher's room with being organized.

  Sense of Humor

The ability to make people laugh and smile at school is one of the most powerful innate qualities a teacher can have.  Using humor to engage students and to develop a positive rapport in the classroom is a great way to create an environment where students enjoy learning.  When educators examine how teachers use humor, they generally agree that it’s an effective tool for building positive relationships with students.  Most of us would also support the idea of making school a little more fun with some good laughter.  Many teachers often wished we had a little more ability to make the students laugh.  There is a downside to humor, however, and it’s worth examining how we use this skill in a little more detail.

  There are two common problems with humor in the classroom, and anyone who has been a classroom teacher has probably seen examples of both.  The first problem emerges when a teacher uses humor so much that their classroom becomes a party.  It is actually somewhat of an art to crack funny jokes and get the class laughing while still managing to teach the curriculum.  Some teachers enjoy the entertaining part of the job but fail to actually get the kids to learn anything.  In some cases the teacher’s ability to act and entertain often mask their lack of mastery of the curriculum or skill as an instructor.  These teachers are very popular with the students- but for all the wrong reasons.  Their class is often described by students as fun but pointless.

  The second problem emerges when the teacher’s sense of humor offends groups of students or an individual.  Teachers often use sarcasm or other forms of humor that are not particularly appropriate for the school setting.  In many cases the teacher doesn’t   even know they have offended a student as they make comments in front of the class.  This kind of humor can be particularly harmful as students will not tell the teacher they have been hurt by what was said.  It is important to remember that many things adults find humorous are not funny to students who are in puberty and struggling to develop their identity.  The classroom setting is a public place where many different people have come together to learn.  A teacher must think carefully about how they use humor so as not to offend anyone.  

Using humor can be great but one must remember that the principal reason we are in school is to learn.  If a teacher can mix in humor appropriately with the day-to-day business of learning the curriculum, the results can be powerful and create an environment that is fun and productive.  Although humor can be useful and effective in the classroom, it can’t really be measured in an evaluation system.  The bottom line is: having a sense of humor, and using it appropriately in the classroom, is sort of innate.  Some people are not funny, and the last thing you want to do is try to be funny when you are not.  

Group Management Skills

There is a wealth of educational research on how to organize and maintain order in the classroom setting. There are also inherent personality traits that help teachers maintain order and communicate their expectations to students. In today's cognitively friendly classroom, students are expected to work in groups and spend a significant part of their class time discussing and collaborating with each other. Some teachers have a much greater tolerance for noise and chaos in the classroom setting. This doesn't mean that they are disorganized or fail to maintain a rigorous learning environment. They simply have a greater comfort level with noisy learning. The ability to multitask and monitor various activities at the same time is a challenging aspect of classroom teaching. Some individuals are much better at it than others, and it's usually related to their tolerance of noise and apparent lack of structure. There are additional challenges that are linked to the teacher's fundamental beliefs about learning.  Some teachers are inherently uncomfortable with a noisy learning environment because they personally prefer a quiet classroom.  It fits more with their vision of school as an orderly place where calm students move from place to place…sort of like a library.

The way a teacher maintains order in the group setting is ultimately linked to planning and a highly organized set of procedures.  This does not mean that the students act like clones. It simply means that the teacher takes time to explain how they want the students to interact and share ideas.  The concept of with-it-ness also comes into play when a teacher actually runs the class.  Some teachers have a certain innate ability to monitor a class like a cowboy drives a herd of cattle.  They seem to anticipate trouble before it occurs and constantly demand productivity.  They make the job look easy by constantly assessing, facilitating, and redirecting learning.  Although the researchers can identify and describe this wonderful skill we call with-it-ness, they fail to help teachers understand how difficult it is to develop.  Compounding this challenge is fact that some teachers have a very laid back personality which makes them somewhat less with it all of the time.  Students sense how well a teacher runs the class and manage student behavior. They are acutely aware of how the teacher presents him or herself and monitors students while they are working.  Being a little hyper doesn’t hurt at all when it comes to classroom teaching.

Relationships

  We might summarize these first few variables to teaching style as how well does the teacher create and maintain positive relationships with adults and students.  Although this seems sort of broad, one might be surprised to see how many teachers really don’t value developing a relationship with their students.  This is particularly true at the secondary level where you will often hear teachers say: “I’m not here to be their friend. I’m here to teach this complex curriculum”.  That sometimes translates to them reading the book to students and offering boring power point lectures.  Although most teacher evaluation systems don’t even mention relationships with parents or students, it turns out the simple skill of developing positive relationships might be the most important innate skill a teacher can poses.  Schools are a complex social setting where people are challenged to work together.  The ability of a teacher to collaborate and create positive working relationships with both colleagues and students is a valuable skill that ultimately leads to a productive school culture.

The fact that there are many teachers and administrators that fail to make positive relationships with students and colleagues is somewhat troubling.  This is obviously not assessed in the teacher's evaluation as year after year students continue to complain about the same teachers.  The fact that people who struggle with developing and maintaining positive relationships are still in the classroom and running our schools is likely the result of the difficultly in measuring or quantifying the ability to make positive relationships.  This is indeed an innate skill that is so simple yet so often ignored.  When we look at the value of this skill in teachers who build positive relations, the impact on students is obvious.  The best teachers build positive relations with three specific groups: students, parents, and colleagues. In all cases they universally understand the value of caring about other people and convey that belief in their day-to-day practices.  

  The relationship between student and teacher is by far the most important.  This relationship changes during the student’s development, from kindergarten where the teacher is almost a second parent, to high school where a teacher is often more of a friend and confidant.  When great teachers talk about their experiences in the classroom they immediately start talking about individual students.  They see that relationships are foundational to individual student motivation and success. In that regard, teachers need to differentiate the relationships they develop with each student.  Simple things like greeting at the door and quickly learning names are sometimes not seen as the most important aspects of education, but they probably should be.  The ability to relate to students and develop positive relationships is key to being a great teacher.

  It is not worth trying to describe the various ways great teachers develop and foster positive relationships with their students.  But it is simply a fact: the relationship affects both motivation and academic achievement in students.  Great teachers know the power of first impressions.  They think about how they interact with the class and use humor appropriately.  Although how we make relationships is unique, there are ways to measure how students perceive your relationship with them.  Gathering data from students about how they view you as a teacher is one of the most useful things a teacher can do to improve.  It is also very scary to learn about your weaknesses.  The whole process of surveying students is somewhat complicated, so I’ve included a supplemental paper on the topic in the appendix.  

  From the discussion above we can see why evaluating teachers is somewhat difficult.  The craft of teaching is a rich mixture of innate skills and learned technique.  We can measure certain teacher behaviors and student outcomes, but the teacher’s personality and individual skills have a huge impact on their quality as an instructor.  For this reason, most evaluation systems are fairly good at identifying and measuring basic observable behaviors that research has indicated help students learn, but they generally struggle to measure teaching excellence.  The challenge to measuring the best teachers is that they excel in ways that are not easy to quantify and describe.  Their ideas and methods are often cutting edge, and innovation is not something that occurs once in a while, it is the norm.  Systems like the National Board For Professional Teaching Standards recognize this aspect of excellence and measure teachers using a portfolio.  It is then incumbent on the teacher to reflect on their practice and identify how they excel as an individual.  Portfolios are cumbersome to create, however, and very costly to evaluate.  

Although portfolios are not practical for evaluating all teachers they might be the only way to evaluate excellent teachers.  As I reviewed the criteria for National Board certification and my own district's abandoned portfolio system, I noticed three innate skills that seem to be present in excellent teachers.  They were more than just skills that can be learned. These might better be described as dispositions to excellence.

  Dispositions to Excellence – The Teaching Style of a Master

When we look at the best teachers, they incorporate all of the skills listed above in a rich tapestry of planning and action.  They are constantly looking for ways to improve, and reflection is part of their daily practice.  These teachers have enough experience to recognize that change is part of this profession.  But they also have three innate dispositions that make them leaders in the profession and excellent in the classroom.  They work harder and more effectively, they are constantly looking to innovate and improve, and they are creative.  These aspects of excellence become more evident through time but are present in the personality and innate character of all great teachers.    The sad news is that there are very few great teachers, and the reason might be that individuals with innate creativity and innovation usually go into a business where they can make more money.  And as you will see, none of these crucial dispositions to excellence are promoted in any systematic way in public education.  So it’s no wonder that we struggle measuring excellence in teacher evaluation systems when in some ways we discourage it through our practice.

The following examines the three dispositions to excellence listed above.  In each case I will look at how these characteristics are crucial to excellence as well as look at why some teachers fail to posess any of these talents and yet succeed in the profession.

Work Ethic

It’s surprisingly simple. Excellent teachers work harder and more efficiently than their less effective colleagues.  Many people argue that this is not true, but the fact of the matter is you can’t do this job in the time assigned to you each day.  I know several excellent teachers and they all put in long hours both during the school year and on vacation.  The time away from students is not viewed as “time off”, but as reflection and development time.  Although excellent teachers work long hours they don’t seem to mind because they love the job.  They feel the extra time they spend with students is worth the effort.  There is also the efficacy factor at work in successful teachers.  Great teachers have confidence grounded in their success.  They love watching kids learn, and constantly look for ways to improve.  As they gain efficacy- they want to improve even more.  I can safely say that all excellent teachers start with a very strong work ethic.  There seems to be a mind set that the job requires overtime, and they don’t mind putting in the extra time.  

  Among excellent teachers a strong work ethic is mandatory, but we see a broad spectrum of work effort in most schools.  Perhaps most disturbing is that some teachers come in to the profession because they don’t want to work hard.  We see these teachers come in late and leave early each day.  They are the ones with the sign over their desk: THE BEST PART OF TEACHING IS JUNE, JULY AND AUGEST.  They have the students march though uninspiring lessons and then assess them with poorly designed tests.  Year in and year out the class remains pretty much the same. These teachers oppose change primarily because it will make them work.  These teachers plateau early in their career and then spend most of their time promoting the popular public image of the lazy teacher who is over paid and works very little.  More disturbing yet may be the fact that politics and many teacher evaluation systems promote mediocrity.  

In some public schools employees are told when they must go home.  In this case a political union contract dictates how many hours a teacher can spend at work.  Even if a teacher needs to spend time after school with students, their contract prevents them from exercising a strong work ethic.  Additionally, we see most teacher contracts are around 7-8 hours of work per day.  Anyone who Has ever done the job of teaching well knows that this is not enough time to do much planning or grading.  So our contract actually encourages average performance at best because it lists our workday as 7-8 hours.  

Teacher evaluation systems also struggle with the mandated contract day.  If you look at the evaluation system in my district, which is incidentally pretty good, it demands all sorts of great things from teachers.  There is a demand for critical thinking and formative assessment in all lessons.  The teacher needs to create positive relationships and promote and employ psychologically friendly discipline systems.  This all sounds good until you look at the time involved.  Although the district has listed a wonderful outline of good teaching, there is no way a teacher could possibly excel without working hours of overtime each week.  Even the most generous teacher contract fails to recognize the time it takes to do the job well.  You can’t really mandate a strong work ethic in any evaluation system.  

Since our teacher evaluation system does not even recognize the time it takes to be excellent, we must assume that work ethic is an innate skill that must be present in the character of great teachers when they start the profession.  It is also easy to see from my list in the appendix that there is much to learn before one can say they have mastered the craft of instruction.  A strong work ethic seems to be the predisposition that allows some teachers to become excellent.  There is too much to learn in too short a time if one hopes to become a great teacher.

  The Innovation Spirit

Innovation is a word you hear quite often in education.  To some degree all teachers must be somewhat innovative just to keep up with the mandated changes that are associated with the job.  But a handful of teachers are truly innovators in the profession and posess what I call the innovation sprit. The innovation sprit is an innate characteristic of people who enjoy challenges and rewards, exploration and adventure.  They don’t mind taking risks and enjoy the disequilibrium of implementing new ideas.  These people have a certain comfort with change and serve as leaders to other teachers who may not be as comfortable with transition. If you couple the innovation sprit with a strong work ethic, you have a teacher who constantly embraces new ideas.  This does not mean they are constantly changing, it simply means they are aware of new ideas.  

The innovation spirit is not present in many teachers.  These teachers are very cautious of change and new ideas. They often complain about having to do things a new way and prefer a more traditional classroom. This lack of interest in changing or incorporating new ideas is a significant challenge.  Teachers with this mindset tend not to reflect on their practice since they have no intention of changing or incorporating new ideas into their practice.  They also tend to do the exact same things year in and year out.  The consequences of this static approach to classroom instruction is that the teacher fails to grow and to get better each year.  The result is the teacher reaches an early plateau in their career and then basically becomes more ineffective as time goes by.  Although we talk about continuous improvement and life-long learning, the fact of the matter is many teachers lack the innovation sprit.  Without this desire to embrace change and look for new ways to do things a teacher has little hope of becoming great in the profession.

Innovation in the classroom sounds great, but it actually creates a paradox in public education.  Although we want teachers who are reflective and looking to grow, we also want some consistency in classroom instruction and assessment.  What if the innovations are ineffective? Do we really want all teachers to be innovative?  This question gets at the heart of teacher professional development.  Since some teachers don’t even have the innovation sprit we can see that only a few teachers are really going to be innovative.  Personally I think there are only a small number of true innovators in the classroom, perhaps 5% or less.  These teachers have the innovation sprit coupled with the knowledge and creativity required to bring new ideas to life in their classroom.  But who are these teachers and how do we identify them?  

Most teachers are not innovators, yet they manage to evolve and incorporate new ideas in their practice. The practice of reflecting and evaluating new ideas is something that can be learned.  Although some people are more comfortable than others with change, all competent teachers must evolve and change their practices over time.  The teacher should not be expected to create the ideas, but they should consider whether they might have a positive impact on students in the classroom.  So we see there are different degrees of innovation at the classroom level.  Some teachers do not innovate at all and are recognized as marginally proficient at best.  There are teachers who reflect on their practice and incorporate new ideas as they feel appropriate.  And then there are the creative innovators who actually create the changes that others can then use.  These are the rare teachers who actually design new ways of doing things: they have both creativity and the innovative sprit.

Creativity

The gift of creativity can be a great asset to a classroom teacher.  Some teachers are constantly coming up with new ideas and creative ways to solve problems.  They have the gift of creativity and use it in their day-to-day practices. You can’t mandate creativity, so it’s rarely mentioned in teacher evaluation systems, yet it can be extremely useful in classroom instruction.  Like innovation, creativity is downplayed and not really encouraged in most schools, as we don’t want all teachers being creative.  However, some teachers seem to have the gift of dreaming up cool lessons and authentic assessment tasks.  We want them to create these wonderful learning experiences and share them with their less creative colleagues.

Conclusion

One could argue many of the points I’ve suggested above, but I think we can now see why it’s difficult to measure excellence in teaching.  Great teachers have developed a style that is unique to their specific character and talents.  Although anyone can study the craft of instruction and develop the skills of a classroom teacher, the bottom line is some teachers are innately better at the job than others.  They have certain skills that make them learn the craft more quickly and ultimately develop into a better teacher.  Identifying these innate talents is an important step in developing one's teaching style.     

The need for qualified teachers is a growing problem in education today.  As we look to train and develop new teachers it is important to look for people who have various innate abilities coupled with a strong work ethic.  It’s time to start raising the bar on who we hire to teach our children, but is not something that is easy to mandate.  Excellent teachers are not trained they are born.  The passion they bring to the classroom is much more related to their character than their training.  This has profound implications for the way we evaluate and compensate teachers.

We can see why portfolios are used as a way to evaluate excellence.  Any system of teacher evaluation must consider the innate talents that make the teacher great.  There are numerous efforts across the country to reward the great teachers with more money and to weed out those people who are not serving our schools well.  The problem with most of these plans is they fail to even consider the innate.  We see systems of teacher compensation that base a teachers pay on how well their students do on standardized tests. Or they try to describe what excellence looks like in some sort of rubric.  The problem with these systems is they fail to address the individual nature of teaching.  The National Board for Professional Teaching Standards recognized this many years ago and bases their determination of excellence on a teacher-generated portfolio.  Although this is costly and cumbersome, it allows teachers to identify and describe what they have learned are their strengths.  In fact there is a fair amount of research that suggests the act of reflecting on your practice actually helps teachers improve their classroom instruction.

The challenge of teacher evaluation is compounded by the fact that most administrators have not spent enough time in the classroom as teachers to really understand or evaluate experienced, quality teachers.  Since they are not experts in instruction, they must rely on rubrics or test data to determine whom the good teachers are.  Relationships with students and parents are not something they measure unless the teacher is doing a poor job and getting complaints.  Most administrators do not really encourage creativity and innovation because it circumvents their authority and leadership in the school. Work ethic is not really something you can measure, and some teachers work long hours but are still ineffective.  The chart below shows how teachers change during their career and why it is so difficult to measure excellence.

    Chart Illustrating Why It is Difficult to Measure Excellence in Teaching

Difficult to measure

Art of Teaching: The innate skills in the character of a teacher, Relationships, Sense of Humor, Creativity, Flexibility, Open Mindedness,

  Easy to measure

Time, Science of Teaching: What can be learned, Planning, Classroom Management Skills, Content Knowledge/Pedagogy, Assessment Skills, Technology Integration, Cognitive Science,

  The chart above illustrates how a teacher changes during the course of their career.  At the start, it is fairly easy to identify and measure how well the teacher performs the various tasks they have learned.  Most teacher evaluation systems do a fairly good job in assessing these “learned” aspects of teaching.  As a teacher grows in their career, they internalize much of the science of teaching into their day-to-day practice.  Once this occurs the personality of the teacher becomes more important.  As a person continues to grow in their teaching career, more of their innate personality becomes evident in their practice.  This has huge implications for teacher evaluation because these innate talents are not easy to quantify or describe in some rubric.  

Appendix:

Teaching…What can be learned?      What is innate?

Learned: Procedures/rules, Lesson design, Classroom management techniques, Instructional style, Content knowledge/Curriculum mastery, Cognitive science / learning science, Assessment literacy, Technology integration, Acting ability

Innate: Communication skills, Organizational skills, Relationships, Sense of humor, Work ethic, Need for order and productivity, Open mindedness, Innovative character, Comfort with change, Creativity